Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices

Simon Liebl; Ian Ferguson; Andreas Aßmuth; Natalie Coull; George R. S. Weir

Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices

Simon Liebl^*
, Ian Ferguson
, Andreas Aßmuth
, Natalie Coull
, George R. S. Weir

^*Corresponding author for this work

Department of Cybersecurity and Computing

Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

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Abstract

A growing number of Internet of Things (IoT) devices are used across consumer, medical, and industrial domains. They interact with their environment through sensors and actuators and connect to networks such as the Internet. Because sensors may collect sensitive data and actuators can trigger physical actions, security, privacy, and safety are major challenges. Threat modelling can help identify risks, but established IT‑focused methods transfer to the IoT only to a limited extent. In this paper, a new modelling technique specifically for IoT devices called Cyber-Physical Data Flow Diagram (CPDFD) is proposed that also allows modelling of hardware with the aim to support manufacturers in identifying threats and developing countermeasures. The technique was examined through an experimental study and a survey with interviews. The results suggest that numerous other attack scenarios can be found through the modelling technique, improving the identification of threats to IoT devices.

Original language	English
Title of host publication	CROSS-SEC 2026
Subtitle of host publication	The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems
Editors	Andreas Aßmuth, Christoph P. Neumann, Sebastian Fischer
Publisher	International Academy, Research, and Industry Association (IARIA)
Pages	32-41
Number of pages	10
ISBN (Print)	9781685584429
Publication status	Published - 19 Apr 2026
Event	The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems - Lisbon, Portugal Duration: 19 Apr 2026 → 23 Apr 2026 Conference number: 1st https://www.iaria.org/conferences2026/ProgramCROSS-SEC26.html

Conference

Conference	The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems
Abbreviated title	CROSS-SEC 2026
Country/Territory	Portugal
City	Lisbon
Period	19/04/26 → 23/04/26
Internet address	https://www.iaria.org/conferences2026/ProgramCROSS-SEC26.html

UN SDGs

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

SDG 9 Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure

Keywords

Security
Internet of Things
Embedded systems
Threat modelling
Cyber-physical data flow diagram

Access to Document

Ferguson_IntroducingTheCyber-PhysicalDataFlow_Published_2026Final published version, 321 KBLicence: Other

https://www.thinkmind.org/library/CROSS-SEC/CROSS-SEC_2026/cross-sec_2026_1_50_85070.htmlLicence: Other

A threat modelling approach to enhance the security of Internet of Things Devices
Liebl, S. (Author), Ferguson, I. (Supervisor) & Coull, N. (Supervisor), 1 Mar 2024
Student thesis: Doctoral Thesis › PhD

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Cite this

Liebl, S., Ferguson, I., Aßmuth, A., Coull, N., & Weir, G. R. S. (2026). Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices. In A. Aßmuth, C. P. Neumann, & S. Fischer (Eds.), CROSS-SEC 2026: The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems (pp. 32-41). International Academy, Research, and Industry Association (IARIA). https://www.thinkmind.org/library/CROSS-SEC/CROSS-SEC_2026/cross-sec_2026_1_50_85070.html

Liebl, Simon ; Ferguson, Ian ; Aßmuth, Andreas et al. / Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices. CROSS-SEC 2026: The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems. editor / Andreas Aßmuth ; Christoph P. Neumann ; Sebastian Fischer. International Academy, Research, and Industry Association (IARIA), 2026. pp. 32-41

@inproceedings{098d3ededa5a4ce39c9e846a46100bfd,

title = "Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices",

abstract = "A growing number of Internet of Things (IoT) devices are used across consumer, medical, and industrial domains. They interact with their environment through sensors and actuators and connect to networks such as the Internet. Because sensors may collect sensitive data and actuators can trigger physical actions, security, privacy, and safety are major challenges. Threat modelling can help identify risks, but established IT‑focused methods transfer to the IoT only to a limited extent. In this paper, a new modelling technique specifically for IoT devices called Cyber-Physical Data Flow Diagram (CPDFD) is proposed that also allows modelling of hardware with the aim to support manufacturers in identifying threats and developing countermeasures. The technique was examined through an experimental study and a survey with interviews. The results suggest that numerous other attack scenarios can be found through the modelling technique, improving the identification of threats to IoT devices.",

author = "Simon Liebl and Ian Ferguson and Andreas A{\ss}muth and Natalie Coull and Weir, \{George R. S.\}",

note = "{\textcopyright}IARIA, 2026 Data availability statement: Not present.; The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems, CROSS-SEC 2026 ; Conference date: 19-04-2026 Through 23-04-2026",

year = "2026",

month = apr,

day = "19",

language = "English",

isbn = "9781685584429",

pages = "32--41",

editor = "Andreas A{\ss}muth and Neumann, \{Christoph P.\} and Sebastian Fischer",

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Liebl, S, Ferguson, I, Aßmuth, A, Coull, N & Weir, GRS 2026, Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices. in A Aßmuth, CP Neumann & S Fischer (eds), CROSS-SEC 2026: The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems. International Academy, Research, and Industry Association (IARIA), pp. 32-41, The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems, Lisbon, Portugal, 19/04/26. <https://www.thinkmind.org/library/CROSS-SEC/CROSS-SEC_2026/cross-sec_2026_1_50_85070.html>

Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices. / Liebl, Simon; Ferguson, Ian; Aßmuth, Andreas et al.
CROSS-SEC 2026: The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems. ed. / Andreas Aßmuth; Christoph P. Neumann; Sebastian Fischer. International Academy, Research, and Industry Association (IARIA), 2026. p. 32-41.

Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

TY - GEN

T1 - Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices

AU - Liebl, Simon

AU - Ferguson, Ian

AU - Aßmuth, Andreas

AU - Coull, Natalie

AU - Weir, George R. S.

N1 - Conference code: 1st

PY - 2026/4/19

Y1 - 2026/4/19

N2 - A growing number of Internet of Things (IoT) devices are used across consumer, medical, and industrial domains. They interact with their environment through sensors and actuators and connect to networks such as the Internet. Because sensors may collect sensitive data and actuators can trigger physical actions, security, privacy, and safety are major challenges. Threat modelling can help identify risks, but established IT‑focused methods transfer to the IoT only to a limited extent. In this paper, a new modelling technique specifically for IoT devices called Cyber-Physical Data Flow Diagram (CPDFD) is proposed that also allows modelling of hardware with the aim to support manufacturers in identifying threats and developing countermeasures. The technique was examined through an experimental study and a survey with interviews. The results suggest that numerous other attack scenarios can be found through the modelling technique, improving the identification of threats to IoT devices.

AB - A growing number of Internet of Things (IoT) devices are used across consumer, medical, and industrial domains. They interact with their environment through sensors and actuators and connect to networks such as the Internet. Because sensors may collect sensitive data and actuators can trigger physical actions, security, privacy, and safety are major challenges. Threat modelling can help identify risks, but established IT‑focused methods transfer to the IoT only to a limited extent. In this paper, a new modelling technique specifically for IoT devices called Cyber-Physical Data Flow Diagram (CPDFD) is proposed that also allows modelling of hardware with the aim to support manufacturers in identifying threats and developing countermeasures. The technique was examined through an experimental study and a survey with interviews. The results suggest that numerous other attack scenarios can be found through the modelling technique, improving the identification of threats to IoT devices.

M3 - Conference contribution

SN - 9781685584429

SP - 32

EP - 41

BT - CROSS-SEC 2026

A2 - Aßmuth, Andreas

A2 - Neumann, Christoph P.

A2 - Fischer, Sebastian

PB - International Academy, Research, and Industry Association (IARIA)

T2 - The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems

Y2 - 19 April 2026 through 23 April 2026

ER -

Liebl S, Ferguson I, Aßmuth A, Coull N, Weir GRS. Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices. In Aßmuth A, Neumann CP, Fischer S, editors, CROSS-SEC 2026: The First International Conference on Cross-Domain Security in Distributed, Intelligent and Critical Systems. International Academy, Research, and Industry Association (IARIA). 2026. p. 32-41 Epub 2026 Apr 19.

Introducing the cyber-physical data flow diagram to improve threat modelling of Internet of Things devices

Abstract

Conference

UN SDGs

Keywords

Access to Document

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Student theses

A threat modelling approach to enhance the security of Internet of Things Devices

Cite this